Surgeon Joseph E. Murray is flanked by the world's longest-lived transplant recipient, Edith Helm (left), and her twin sister Wanda Foster. Edith received a kidney from Wanda in 1956 in a transplant procedure pioneered by Murray; the three gathered in May 1996 at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the historic life-saving operation and unveil a permanent display tracing the surgery professor's groundbreaking, Nobel Prize-winning work in organ transplantation.

Making Major Impacts on the World

The following is a partial listing of scientific breakthroughs at Harvard University that have made major impacts on society, and on the world:

2006 - Harvard paleontologists, led by Professor Farish Jenkins and joined by colleagues at the University of Chicago and the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, find fossils of a species, Tiktaalik roseae, that helps fill the gap between fish and the first animals to walk on land 375 million years ago.

Harvard Stem Cell Institute scientists discover a type of master cell that gives rise to other cells that cause a heart to beat, make up its internal surface, and form its blood cells. The finding offers the prospect of new strategies for regeneration of heart tissues damaged by disease or trauma.

Harvard and Merck & Co. Ltd. sign a multi-million dollar licensing agreement to develop potential therapies to treat macular degeneration, a leading cause of age-related blindness. The agreement is one of the largest in Harvard Medical School history.

2005 - Broad Institute researchers decode the chimpanzee and dog genomes, providing powerful comparative tools to help us understand how humans are "human." Broad researchers also published a map of human genetic variation, called the HapMap, relating genetic variation to both disease and human evolutionary history.

Daniel Lieberman and David Pilbeam, together with researchers from Switzerland, France, and Chad, announce that a 7-million-year-old human skull indicates its owner walked upright, very near the time humans are thought to have separated from ape ancestors.

Physics Professor Roy Glauber wins Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering work on the nature and behavior of light.

2004 - Anthropologist Daniel Lieberman reports on his studies showing that humans evolved into good runners as a way to hunt game in the hot African climate.

HMS assistant professor and Brigham and Women's Hospital surgeon Atul Gawande finds that far more wounded are surviving injuries in the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts than in previous conflicts.

Using nanotechnology, Professor Charles Lieber develops a sensor capable of detecting a single virus.

Former HMS neurobiologist Linda Buck wins the Nobel Prize in physiology for "odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system," research on which she worked while at Harvard.

Stem cell scientist Douglas Melton announces the creation of 17 new lines of embryonic stem cells, adding greatly to the viable number of lines available for researchers.

2003 - Harvard astronomers discover a new planet in the constellation Sagittarius, with an exotic atmosphere of hot iron rains and 3,000 degree Fahrenheit temperatures, the furthest from Earth discovered so far.

Medical School researchers discover a way to neutralize the anthrax bacteria, by interfering with its molecular "syringe" with which it pierces cell walls to inject toxins.

McLean Hospital researchers discover that childhood abuse can "rewire" the brain by reducing an important connector between brain halves and increase the risk of anxiety and suicide.

2002 - Researchers at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute find a gene that leads to obesity and may fight cancer.

2000-01 - Physicist Lene Hau builds on her earlier discovery that light can be slowed dramatically from 186,282 miles per second. She stops light completely by passing it through a cloud of supercooled atoms and then restarts it.

2000 - Synthesized a cancer drug more powerful than any other in use. The most complex molecule ever made on a commercial scale, the drug is being tested on patients for whom no effective chemotherapy exists.

1999 - Discovered a new type of material, called black silicon, which could lead to more efficient ways of converting sunlight to electricity, communicating by light, and monitoring the environment for evidence of global warming.

Physicist Lene Hau slows light from 186,282 miles per second to 38 miles per hour.

1998 - Showed that it may be possible to replace brain cells lost to disease, accidents, or even aging.

1997 - Found good evidence that the universe will go on expanding forever and not end in the crushing grasp of gravity.

1996 - A new cause of glaucoma was discovered by researchers at the Medical School and the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary.

• A simple device was invented to quickly determine if a person is having a heart attack.

1995 - A method to patch worn or torn cartilage in knee joints was developed by surgeons.

1993 - Located the gene for Huntington's disease (with other institutions). The result of a 10-year search, the finding has led to animal models of the disease that are extremely useful for developing drugs to slow or prevent brain cell loss.

1992 - Developed a method for resetting the human biological clock, which has improved safety and effectiveness for shift workers and international travelers.

• Determined the structure of diphtheria toxin (Harvard and the University of California, Los Angeles). This breakthrough paves the way for a safer, cheaper vaccine.

1991 - Determined the value of estrogen replacement therapy for reducing the risk of heart disease in women.

1988 - Developed the first transgenic mouse, now in use worldwide for cancer research. Experiments with the mouse at Harvard led to a method of preventing a cancer of blood cells common in young children in Africa.

1970s - Learned to decode the structure of genes and apply such knowledge to obtain information useful in counseling and medical diagnoses. Walter Gilbert shared the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this research.

• Discovered the genetic system responsible for immunization, allergies, and transplant rejection. Baruj Benacerraf won the 1980 Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology for this work, which has led to new treatments for cancer and autoimmune diseases.

1971 - Discovered the mechanism of blood-vessel growth in tumors. The discovery has applications to numerous medical problems, including cancers, blood-vessel tumors, wound healing, and heart-attack damage.

1960s to Present - Discovered new methods for making drugs and other complex molecules from simple, widely available chemicals. Elias J. Corey received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this pioneering work.

1960s to 1970s - Explained how electromagnetism and radioactivity are two manifestations of the same force and postulated existence of a charmed quark or new type of subatomic particle. Sheldon L. Glashow and Steven Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for these insights into the nature of matter, which were later confirmed experimentally.

1960-61 - Invention of the defibrillator and cardioverter, used around the world to control disturbances in heart rhythm.

1950s to Present - Advanced understanding of how the brain processes visual information. David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Medicine for this research.

1950 to 1970s - First synthesized chlorophyll, cortisone, cholesterol, vitamin B-12, and other complex molecules. Robert Burns Woodward won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for revealing how to synthesize these natural compounds.

1950s to 1960s - Worked out relationships between DNA, genes, and the proteins they produce. James D. Watson shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology for co-discovery of the structure of DNA, after which he pursued this work at Harvard.

• Demonstrated the potential of insect hormones to control growth and development. A series of basic discoveries by Carroll Williams and others led to more effective types of insecticides.

1954 - Performed the first human kidney transplant, launching the era of organ transplantation. Joseph E. Murray shared the 1990 Nobel Prize in Medicine for this and subsequent work on preventing transplant rejection.

1952 - Developed the heart pacemaker.

1950s - Discovered that vitamin A is essential to vision and plays a major role in color blindness. George Wald received the 1967 Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology for these findings.

Howard Aiken, professor of applied mathematics, built the first computer at Harvard. Here he examines a program tape, an early version of a software program, in one of the computers he designed. Aiken died in 1973.

1949 - Research on energy levels in atoms led to the invention of extremely accurate atomic clocks and the hydrogen maser. Norman F. Ramsey shared the 1989 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.

1946 - Discovered nuclear magnetic resonance, now used extensively for medical imaging and investigations of molecular structures. Edward M. Purcell shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for this accomplishment.

1933-34 - Developed electroencephalography for studying human brain activity.

1930s - Developed the modern theory of magnetism based on quantum mechanics. John Van Vleck won the 1977 Nobel Prize in Physics for this feat.

1920s - Performed research that led to a cure for pernicious anemia. George Minot won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology for this work.

1846 - Introduced surgical anesthesia.

1842 - Realization of the contagiousness of puerperal fever by Anatomy Professor Oliver Wendell Holmes, an important factor in the development of the germ theory of disease.

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